Biological
Determinism: the myth that our social status is written in our genes
(highlights from Stephen J. Gould's Mismeasure of Man)
·
Human
beings had a monogenetic origin in the recent past--there is little genetic
difference between ethnic groups.
·
The
brain weight to body weight ratio of all ethnic groups and both genders are the
same.
·
There
is a clear causal relationship between quality of education and intelligence
measures.
·
Yet
history is full of attempts to show an innate (genetic) superiority for
intelligence in the upper-class, for Europeans, and for males.
I. 19th century: attempts
to show race and gender differences in intelligence via physiological
measurements
A.
Samuel George Morton in America:
Morton measures brain size by cranial capacity (pouring seeds into skulls and
measuring the resulting volume). Claimed to have found the following
differences in brain size: White brains > Native Americans brains >
African brains
BUT:
1)
Initial results using flax seed showed large differences
2)
Switched to metal shot – got much smaller differences: he
was packing in the seeds with force in proportion to his prejudice (packed
strongest for whites, less for native Americans, least for Africans).
3)
If you adjust for body size, differences are zero.
B. Paul Broca (France 1862)
1)
Examined arm bone ratios: whites closer to apes,
so abandoned this criterion
2)
Examined brain size: abandoned upper end of
scale because of white “inferiority”
3)
Examined brains of criminals: they were larger
4)
French v.s. Germans: correctly adjusted German
brain size for body size.
5)
Cro-Magnon compared with modern European
populations-- abaondoned
6)
Male vs Female: did not adjust for body size.
II. Hereditarian theory of IQ and
Eugenics
A. Binet (France 1904):
1)
Head size for best/worst students: “blind” testing removes
difference
2)
Turns to testing – only as method to identify
learning disability
3)
Cautions against using average of tests as a
ranking system or inferring innate ability
1)
Invents “morons” as borderline btwn normal and
abnormal
2)
Prevent “interbreeding” that could lower quality of US “gene
pool”
3)
Prevent immigrants from “polluting” the US with
their “bad genes”
1)
Changes Binet’s system into unilineal ranking,
from subnormal to genius.
2)
Disappointing lack of confirmation, eg hobo IQ higher
than police and firefighters.
3)
His student Catherine Cox claims to confirm, but
used estimated IQ of dead geniuses.
1)
WWI provides new testing opportunity
2)
Much of test biased to middle-class WASP culture.
3)
White recruits who failed written test given
image version, but not black recruits.
4)
Test results showed strong correlation with
poverty – a problem for hereditarians.
5)
Test results showed strong correlation with schooling– a
problem for hereditarians.
6)
Black IQ scores in the 4 highest northern states
greater than white ave in 9 southern states.
1)
Defends work of Yerkes, supports
application to immigration law
2)
Cultural bias is OK because we don’t want immigrants who
“don’t think like Americans.”
3)
Explained correlation of IQ with amount of time in U.S.
using absolute rather than relative time.
4)
Explanation for lower IQ in non-english speaking
“Nordics”: “that’s just cultural difference”
5)
Impact of the Army IQ test results for African Americans and
Jews: segregation and 1924 immigration restriction act.
III. IQ
and Factor Analysis
Cyril Burt (UK 1940):
1)
Claimed to have found 53 twins separated at
birth and raised apart.
2)
Average correlation remained exactly the same
across every sample.
3)
Collaborators Howard and Conway did not exist.
4)
Proof for genetic basis of econ class standing:
IQ of parents estimated from class.
5)
Fraud exposed by Burt’s fan Hearnshaw.
1)
Eugenics requires single ranking parameter: g
(like gas for all mental activities)
2)
Alternative model: PMA (like separate “engines”
for each mental activity)
3)
Most IQ tests show strong (PMA-like) variation
between abilities (g 2ndary).
Argument
is actually irrelevant since it is only a necessary, not sufficient, condition
for eugenics to be true – still says nothing about inheritance
IV. Post WWII
Eugenics suddenly becomes unfashionable – Nazi attempts to
eliminate “inferior genes” and breed a “master race” expose the political
consequences of eugenics thinking.
V. Postmodern Biological
Determinism
1966:
Nobel prize winner William Shockly
1)
Presents paper at AAAS claiming that the work of Terman,
Goddard, and Burt proves there is no point to social programs for African
Americans.
2)
Encourages sterilization of anyone with IQ below
100, sperm bank for Nobel Prize winners.