Samuel George Morton: 1839

Claimed to have found the following differences in cranial capacity:

White brains > Native Americans brains > African brains

1) Initial results using flax seed showed large differences

2) Switched to metal shot – got much smaller differences

3) If you adjust for body size, differences are zero.

Paul Broca: 1862

1) Examined arm bone ratios: whites closer to apes, so abandoned this criterion

2) Examined brain size: abandoned upper end of scale because of white “inferiority”

3) Examined brains of criminals: they were larger

4) French v.s. Germans: correctly adjusted German brain size for body size.

5) Cro-Magnon compared with modern European populations-- abaondoned

6) Male vs Female: did not adjust for body size.